Tutto sulla Creatività 1 - 2 - 3
John C. Houtz, Professor of Educational Psychology, Fordham University, Graduate School of Education
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Interaction of Cognitive and Affective Traits in the Problem Solving Process
Stages of Problem Solving  Expected Form      Predominant Cognitive Traits Predominant Affective Traits
Preparation   Neat, well-organized   Memory, logical thinking  Studiousness, sustained attention
Incubation   Sloppy, unclear   Unconscious processing, fantasy thinking   Intellectual freedom,lack of defensiveness,  openness
Illumination  Often confused, incoherent,  unexplainable      Divergent thinking, fluency   Risk-taking, tolerance of ambiguity and/or failure,spontaneity
Verification   Neat, well-organized, clarity  Convergent and evaluative thinking   Discipline, dependability, planfulness

CREATIVITY THEORY OF MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI

A “SYSTEMS” MODEL

Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper/Collins.

THERE ARE THREE COMPONENTS TO THE SYSTEM:

THE DOMAIN:

THE FIELD:

THE INDIVIDUAL:

                        CREATIVITY WITH A CAPITAL “C” CONSISTS IN CHANGING A DOMAIN

The systems model implies that no one component is sufficient to predict or foster creativity. For example,  training in creative problem solving for the employees of a company (the individual component) won’t do much good unless the employees will have easy access to the domain (increased research budgets, resource availability, etc.) and the organization, itself, and its managers and administrators (the field) also recognize and encourage creativity.  

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s Theory of Creativity

I.          Problems with Person-centered Views of Creativity

            A.       Individual abilities not enough

            B.        The nature of creative accomplishment transcends the individual

            C.        The importance of the external, social environment is overlooked

II.          A “Systems” View

A.         A system is a collection of individual  elements that operate together to achieve some goal; each element may influence the functioning of another element

B.         The advantages of a “systems” view:

1.         Complexity better predicts complex phenomena; more factors permit more accurate judgments

2.         The “process” may transcend the individual elements; individual elements “blend” together and the “process” takes on its own identity

III.         The Theory—Creativity Is an Interaction of Three Elements in a Social System

A.         The “domain” is the existing knowledge about a phenomena ( facts, beliefs, methods, techniques, customs, values, rules)

B.         The “field” is the existing expertise in that domain (includes judgments about new ideas)

C.        The “individual” is the skills, motivations, personality traits, experiences, education, etc., of the person

IV.        Definition of Creativity

A.         Creativity results in a transformation of the domain

B.         Creativity is finding new problems (in the domain) to work on that expand the domain and field

V.         His Research

A.         Studies individuals who have achieved; who have transformed their domains and fields

B.         Reveals personal and social interactive factors affecting development of expertise and achievement

C.        Reveals the insights that led to “discovery”; problem finding is more central to creativity than previously thought; in reality, creative individuals engage in more problem finding than problem solving; they have already mastered technique        

WHAT IS FLOW?

“Flow” is that “optimal” experience one feels when things are going well, when one’s actions seem almost automatic, effortless, and yet one is highly focused on one’s activity.

Characteristics of the Optimal Experience:

  1. There are clear goals every step of the way.
  2. There is immediate feedback to one’s actions.
  3. There is a balance between challenges and skills.
  4. Actions and awareness are merged.
  5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness.
  6. There is no worry of failure.
  7. Self-consciousness disappears.
  8. The sense of time becomes distorted.
  9. The activity becomes autotelic (i.e., generating its own enjoyment)

Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper/Collins.

Treffinger's C-O-C-O Model of Creative Problem Solving

Donald Treffinger, President and founder of the Center for Creative Learning, Inc., in Sarasota, Florida, proposes the following four-component model of creative problem solving:

1. Characteristics of people

2. Operations they perform

3. Contexts in which operations are performed

4. Outcomes that result

Reference:Treffinger, D.J. & Isaksen, S.G. (1992). Creative problem solving: An introduction. Sarasota, FL: Center for Creative Learning, Inc., 4152 Independence Court, Suite C-7, Sarasota, FL  34234.

Brainstorming: A Technique of Idea-Finding

Source: A. Osborn

Assumptions:

The Group Process:

SYNECTICS ---- INVENTING BY THE "MADNESS METHOD"

Source: W. J. J. Gordon

Basic Assumption: 
In the creative process, the emotional component is more important than the intellectual; the irrational is more important than the rational

The Synectics Session:         

  1. Problem as Given (PAG): Analysis and explanation by experts
  2. Purge ideas which seem old, irrelevant, uninteresting traditional, etc.
  3. Generation of problems as understood (PAU) by members
  4. Choice of PAU
  5. Evocative question for example
  6. Choice of example
  7. Evocative question for personal analogy
  8. Choice of "Book Title"
  9. Evocative question for example
  10. Choice of example
  11. Examination of example
  12. Force Fit into New Viewpoint

The synectics session differs from typical problem solving in that the sessions do not necessarily seek solutions. The primary goal is to seek new viewpoints or speculations about the problem. Then, perhaps, a solution to the specific problem will be forthcoming.

The operational mechanisms of synectics include the use of questions by the leader calling for examples of how members view the problem or feel about the problem. Members are to respond with analogies; that is, trying to think about the problem in other terms, "as if" terms. For example, look at the examples of analogies below:

ANALOGIES

Personal Analogy

Direct Analogy

Sir I. M. Brunel developed the caisson by observing that the worm creates its own tunnel as it moves through the ground

A. G. Bell observed that the "massive" bones in the human ear could be moved by a thin membrane; therefore, a stouter piece of membrane should be able to move a piece of steel. Hence, the telephone. Think of other examples from the natural world.

Symbolic Analogy

Book Titles--focusing on crucial words or phrases which capture the essence of meaning or "feel" of an object or activity or problem
Examples: 

ratchet  
dependable intermittency
viscosity 
hesitant displacement
solidity  
enforced togetherness
forest fire
progressive ingestion
machine- gun burst  
connected pauses
target  
focused desire
mixture  
balanced confusion
multitude  
discrete infinity
  acid   
impure aggressor
  receptivity   
involuntary willingness

ACTIVITY

Book Titles

Directions: For each of the objects, concepts, functions, or activities listed below, generateas many "book titles" as you can. "Book titles" are short, two-, three-, or four- word combinations or phrases which capture the essence, the basic meaning to you) of the object, concept, function, or activity. There are no right or answers. Think of as many "book titles" as you can.

  1. Commuting to and from work (or school):
  2. Babysitting
  3. Cooking a holiday dinner
  4. A business meeting
  5. A doctor's appointment
  6. Diploma
  7. Teenager
  8. Mountain climbing

    HOWARD GRUBER’S EVOLVING SYSTEMS THEORY OF CREATIVITY

Source: Gruber, H. E. (1999). Evolving systems approach. In M. A. Runco, & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (pp. 689-693).

I. Evolving Systems Theory is a theory of the individual

  • A.         Goal is to construct an accurate account of the creativity of an Individual
  • B.         There is no presumption that generalizations to other cases can be made
  • C.        The description starts whenever and wherever in the life and work of the individual that is feasible
  • D.        Any facet (aspect) of the individual’s life and experience that can be distinguished is fair game for study, whether “process”, “product”, “person”, or “context”
  • E.         An accumulation of case studies is required for this approach

II. Evolving Systems Theory consists of Three Sub-systems:

  • A.         Knowledge—how the individual acquires and uses it
  • B.         Purpose—how the individual seeks out and discovers problems to work on
  • C.        Affect--how the individual maintains motivation and habits of work; how the individual responds to and interacts with others who have influence on one’s life and work   
 

III. Implications of the Systems Approach

  • A.         Creativity can be understood through examining not single events or products, but through “networks of enterprise” over time (that keep the individual interested, motivated, etc.)
  • B.         Sudden insight (the “Eureka!” or “Aha!” experience) is but a manifestation of prior preparation, hard work and extended involvement with one’s work
  • C.        Collaboration is an important aspect of creativity
  • D.        Pluralism is essential for creativity; creative work always takes place in a multiplex environment

Sternberg’s Investment Theory of Creativity

“Buy low, sell high”

Creativity requires an “investment view”:

  • “Anyone can do it”
  • “Buying low and selling high is a way of life”
  • “What’s low and high changes with time and place”
  • “You must be attentive”
  • “You must be selective”
  • “You may be ignored and opposed”
  • “You will need courage”

I.          Cognitive Ability

A.         Intelligence

  • a.         You need to know things to generate ideas—declarative knowledge
  • b.         You need to know how to proceed (the process)— procedural knowledge
  • c.         You need to know how to make things happen—metacognition

B.         Knowledge—from your experience

  • a.         Formal knowledge—from education
  • b.         Informal, tacit understandings—from experience

II.          Affective Characteristics

A.         Supportive style

  • a.         Legislative, executive, judicial styles
  • b.         Forms of mental self-government:
      • 1)         monarchistic
      • 2)         hierarchical
      • 3)         oligarchic
      • 4)         anarchic
  • c.         Levels of  mental self-government
      • 1)         global
      • 2)         local
  • d.         Scope of mental self-government
      • 1)         internal
      • 2)         external
  • e.         Orientations of mental self government
      • 1)         liberal
      • 2)         conservative

B.         Personality traits

  • a.         Perseverance
  • b.         Willingness to take sensible risks
  • c.         Willingness to grow
  • d.         Tolerance of ambiguity
  • e.         Openness to new experience
  • f.          Belief in yourself and courage of your convictions
 

C.        Motivation

  • a.         Intrinsic motivation
  • b.         Extrinsic motivation
  • c.         Achievement motivation
 

III.         Social, Environmental Factors

A.         A “Bullish” Environment

Creativity exists in everyone; it’s natural; creativity is self-Actualization

B.         A “Bearish” Environment

Creativity requires challenge, obstacles, dissatisfaction, unhappiness

C.        Characteristics of Creative Environments

  • 1)         Rich contexts, stimulating, playful, humor is present
  • 2)         Some limits to provide challenge, guidance
  • 3)         Evaluation is useful, non-threatening
  • 4)         Competition and cooperation can help or hinder creativity, depending…. Competition with challenge is good, with punishment is bad. Cooperation without challenge is bad, with mutual encouragement and support is good.
  • 5)         Home climate is flexible, challenging
  • 6)         Role models, mentors
  • 7)         School and organizational climates support innovation, reward new ideas
  • 8.         Societal ambiance (see Arieti’s list of factors); also Simonton’s cultural analyses (timing is important)

THE PRODUCT
MEASUREMENT OF THE CREATIVE PRODUCT

A.        THE PROBLEM OF MULTIPLE DEFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY

  1. FLUENCY
  2. FLEXIBILITY
  3. ORIGINALITY, NOVELTY
  4. ELABORATION
  5.  CONNECTEDNESS
  6. RESISTANCE TO CLOSURE
  7. “SURPRISE”
  8. USEFULNESS, ACCEPTANCE
            ISSUE:           “AVERAGE” CREATIVITY VS. EXTREME EXCEPTIONALITY

B.        ASSESSMENT METHODS

  1. PAPER-AND-PENCIL TESTS
  2. PERSONALITY MEASURES
  3. SELF-REPORTS OF INTERESTS, ACTIVITIES, ACHIEVEMENTS
  4. NOMINATIONS BY PARENTS, TEACHERS, SELF, AND OTHERS
  5. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS
  6. PRODUCT EVALUATIONS (EXPERT JUDGES OR CONSENSUAL  ASSESSMENT)
            ISSUE:           PREDICTION OF REAL-LIFE CREATIVITY


    

Figure 1.         The Original Structure of Intellect Model

Sternberg’s Propulsion Theory of Creativity (from 1999 APA Address)

There are seven (7 types of creative productions, from simple replication to creating a whole new field, set of questions, methods, etc.

  • a.         Replication
  • b.         Redefinition
  • c.         Forward incrementalism, most common type, involving forward movement of an existing field
  • d.         Advanced forward incrementalism, an idea that is ahead of its time, accelerating the field beyond where people are willing to go
  • e.         Redirection, taking a field that is moving in one direction and branching it off into a new direction
  • f.          Reconstruction redirection, which is backward divergent motion. It involves recognizing that we should go back to an earlier paradigm and go on from there. We made a mistake earlier; we went off-track.
  • g.         Re-inititiation. A field has exhausted itself. The paradigm is shot. Let’s question all our assumptions. We need a major paradigm shift. Let’s start again from an entirely different point. We must challenge our existing ideas.

Propulsion means pushing the field, changing to new fields, new questions, new methods

The type of creativity most valued is forward incrementalism

The kinds of creativity that are typically ignored, rejected, punish, etc., are the more radical forms

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