Abstract

Within the past decade, a new construct, emotional intelligence, has emerged bringing with it great promise for organizations. Emotional Intelligence is defined as the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and others, the adaptive regulation of emotion in the self and others, and the utilization of emotion to facilitate performance (Salovey & Mayer, 1989-90). There exists little empirical research in the literature concerning confirmation of the construct due to lack of objective measures. Regardless of the construct's slow evolution, numerous researchers do insist that emotional intelligence is real and should be a valuable and necessary component of every workforce. The present paper will discuss emotional intelligence's origins, its application to teams, and its training possibilities with the hope that organizations will begin to value its importance.

The Emotionally Intelligent Team

Emotional intelligence has recently emerged in both academic and popular literature as a concept with the potential to provide new insights into the effect of emotion on human interaction. One type of interaction frequently found in the organizational context is that of team members. Numerous organizations are in the process of converting over to a team based approach, and because of this, emotional intelligence is needed to aid the transition. Team members must be skilled in emotional intelligence in order to deal with interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts, raise communication and commitment, and to accomplish their goals. Throughout the following sections, the origin of emotion and emotional intelligence will be discussed along with emotional intelligence's application to teams. Emotional intelligence's independence as a construct will also be addressed, and the discussion will conclude with suggestions on how to train team members to be more emotionally intelligent.

Emotion

Emotional intelligence's origin can be traced to the emotion literature. Emotion includes an expressive or motor component, an experiential element, a regulatory component, and a recognition or processing factor (Greenberg & Snell, 1997). The expressive/motor component houses the ability to express emotion through facial expressions, body posture, and vocal tone. The experiential element is where one experiences feeling. It is the result of awareness of cues from the central nervous system, feedback from one's facial expression and one's own interpretation of what is occurring around him/her. The regulatory component deals with reacting to the experienced emotion. Joy, for example, raises one's activity level while sadness lowers it. People react very differently to the same emotion because of differences in their regulatory component. Finally, the recognition and processing factor is the ability to recognize what emotion another person is feeling by processing their facial expression, body posture, vocal tone and speed. This ability develops very early in infancy and early childhood (Greenberg & Snell, 1997).

One’s emotions do affect daily functioning along with delegating reactions to events taking place. Two traditions exist in the conceptualization of emotions: disorganized interruptions and an organizing response (Young, 1943). Young defined emotions as "acute disturbances of the individual as a whole". Leeper (1948) suggested that emotions are primarily motivating forces or "processes which arouse, sustain, and direct activity". Salovey and Mayer (1989-90) defined emotions as organized responses, crossing the boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including the physiological, cognitive, motivational, and experiential systems. They believe that emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively valenced meaning for the individual.

Emotions can be distinguished from the concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense. They are important for the following: survival, decision making, boundary setting, communication, and unity. They are a valuable source of information in that they aid us in decision making. Our emotions alert us when we feel uncomfortable with the present situation. They also assist us in communicating (facial expressions, verbal and listening skills). Because of the importance of emotions in our everyday functioning, one would desire knowledge and ability to detect, regulate, and act on his emotions as accurately and efficiently as possible. This is the idea of being emotionally intelligent.

Emotional Components of the Brain

Limbic System
The central emotion component of the brain is labeled the limbic system. The structures located within the limbic system are involved in several aspects of emotion such as recognition of emotional expressions on the face, action tendencies, and the storage of emotional memories (Greenberg & Snell, 1997). The limbic system receives various signals from other parts of the body concerning internal experiences and external sensory information. The system's connection with other parts of the brain allow it to conduct an initial appraisal of the emotional meaning of the information and pass the information on to other components for an appropriate response.

The limbic system is composed of several substructures worthy of mention. The thalamus and hypothalamus form a "relay station" for incoming information. The thalamus receives sensory information from the environment whereas the hypothalamus takes in information from the body and regulates sexuality and appetite. These two subcomponents then send information to a structure considered to be the "second brain", the amygdala . The amygdala's primary function is the interpretation of incoming sensory information concerning survival and emotional needs. It determines if there is something to fear, be happy about, etc. The amygdala also assigns emotional meaning to memories. "When powerful emotion is experienced, under conditions of emotional stress, the amygdala imprints the memory with an added degree of strength" (Greenberg & Snell, 1997,p. 101). This could explain why people have stronger emotional memories for highly emotional personal experiences (Goleman,1995). It has been suggested that the amygdala can store emotional memories unconsciously which in turn impact behavior without ever coming into consciousness (Le Doux, 1995). Acting alongside the amygdala, the hippocampus aids in the storage of memory. The hippocampus provides memory with nonemotional details and the amygdala ads emotional value to the memory. In response, the hippocampus assigns memories to memory networks in different areas of the brain.

Frontal Lobe
In addition to the limbic system, the frontal lobe contributes much to the emotional system with its involvement in emotion regulation. The frontal cortex has a unique connection with the limbic system because it is the only neocortical site where information processed in the system is represented. Various researchers have concluded that the frontal cortex is where cognition and emotion connect. It has also been proposed that the frontal lobe is the regulator in the emotional process by guiding coping and control of emotional expression (Dawson et al, 1992). This location is believed to be the site home to emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence

In the past, scientists separated emotion from the intelligences. Today, investigators believe emotions can provide valuable decision making information to individuals and place them on a continuum as to how skilled they are at processing this type of information (Salovey, Hsee, & Mayer, 1993). This skill or ability has been labeled emotional intelligence and is constructed of three components: accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and others, the adaptive regulation of emotion in the self and others, and the utilization of emotion to facilitate performance.

Daniel Goleman's (1995) publication of the book "Emotional Intelligence" which contained the above definition, popularized the idea of viewing the experience and expression of emotions as a domain of intelligence. It further stressed the supposition of multiple intelligences and ignited the present debate concerning the exact definition of EI and its most efficient and accurate method of measurement.

Appraisal/Expression in Self and Others
This component primarily deals with the ability of being aware of mood and thoughts concerning that mood (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998). Research indicates that the ability to make faces appropriately communicating emotion to others and the ability to recognize these facial expressions increases linearly with age (Lewis, Sullivan, & Vasen, 1987; Profyt & Whissell, 1991). Despite this, there are adults in existence who are clueless as to their own feelings and who remain insensitive to others' experiences. Individuals vary in their ability to identify feelings communicated to them via facial expressions, communication of their own feelings to others, and in their ability to articulate feelings into words (Buck, 1984). An extreme case of not being able to recognize emotion, alexithymia, translates into "no words for feelings", and is a psychological disorder in which an individual is completely unable to use words to evaluate and express emotion (Davies et al,1998).

Paul Ekman, researcher at the Medical school UC San Francisco, has conducted research on expression of emotion in faces. Ekman found writings of Duchenne, a contemporary of Darwin and one of the first researchers of neurophysiology and relating it to psychology. He took people that lost control of their facial muscles and attached electrodes to the muscles in the face. Duchenne found that although you can manipulate smiles in your face, you can't make the sparkle happen in your eye unless you are really feeling happy. Ekman referred to the smile of true emotion as the Duchenne smile that later became the "D smile". People are pretty good at spotting fake emotions and fake smiles. The question is how do you deal with a person exhibiting fake or inappropriate emotions (e.g. team member)?

Regulation of Emotion in Self/Others
Davies et al (1998) defined regulation of emotion in the self as "referring to the meta-experience of mood or monitoring, evaluating, and acting to change one's mood" (p.991). It is an attempt to change unpleasant moods while sustaining pleasant ones. People engage in activities such as consumption of alcohol, exercising, and seeking others in their attempt to control mood. It seems that the key to successful control is choosing those methods that actually benefit the body and mind instead of harming it. The regulation of others' emotion deals with altering their affective reactions. This action takes place when a person calms fear in another or reassures another individual in order to reduce stress (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Many people's emotions are regulated by other individuals. For example, this regulation occurs when one is moved by others or when one feels impressed by another. Often people focus on the feelings of others and inhibit the display of one's true emotional reactions to a situation. Hochschild (1983) studied the occupation of flight attendant wherein individuals are taught to be happy and friendly to customers at all times no matter how they feel personally. He found that this type of extreme emotional regulation labeled "emotional labor" can be a health hazard and may lead to burnout. This is especially applicable to the team situation where members sometimes hide their true opinion or feelings to avoid conflict.

Using Emotion to Facilitate Performance
Controlling emotion to reach a goal is necessary for motivation, attention, and focus. Goleman (1995) found that self-control of emotion and delay of gratification were predictive of later accomplishment. Moods influence problem solving outcomes because certain emotions promote different problem solving tasks. Creative and inductive reasoning has been found to be improved by happy moods while deductive reasoning and the careful consideration of multiple options was found to be enhanced by sad moods (Palfai & Salovey, 1992). Possibly happy and sad moods could be associated with certain information processing styles that affect performance. Research has shown that people find it easier to categorize aspects of problems as related or unrelated when happy which has been linked to the facilitation of creative thinking (Isen & Daubman, 1984). Also, happy individuals experience higher levels of self-efficacy which is a critical aspect of performance (Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989). In addition to creative thinking, constructive thinking is dependent on managing emotion. Constructive thinking refers to a "person's ability to think in a manner that solves everyday problems in living at a minimal cost in stress" (Katz & Epstein, 1991, p.789). How people manage their emotions can be a major determinant of how effectively intellectual abilities can be assembled. Because teams utilize both creative and constructive thinking in their problem solving, and because teams desire high self-efficacy to maintain performance, emotional intelligence is a valuable resource.

Attention is directed to different problems when powerful emotions are experienced. People may be redirected to give attention to problems with immediate importance. Rather than interrupt ongoing cognitive activities, emotion can assist people in reprioritizing the internal and external demands on their attention, and allocating resources accordingly (Salovey & Mayer, 1989-90). Moods may be used to motivate persistence at challenging tasks. People may use good moods to boost their self-efficacy, thus increasing performance at difficult tasks (Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989). People with positive attitudes create interpersonal experiences that lead to positive outcomes for themselves and others around them (Epstein & Feist, 1988). Teams can use emotional intelligence to remain focuses on the task at hand while keeping a positive rapport with team members.

Emotional Intelligence and Teams

Management theorists have defined a "team" as a distinctive class of group, which is more task oriented than other groups, and which has a set of obvious rules and rewards for its members" (Adair, 1986). This view suggests that high performing teams substitute collective goals and task focus for individual agendas and interpersonal conflicts. Although the ideal situation for teams would be to eliminate all conflict, these task-oriented groups still experience anti-task behaviors. Nadler, Hackman, and Lawler (1979) state that the quality of interpersonal relationships among group members is often poor because people fall into patterns of competitiveness, conflict, and hostility. They comment that group members rarely support or help one another as difficult ideas and issues are resolved. As a result of the above situations, individuals can experience substantial internal tension as team members. This is why emotional intelligence in teams is so important and is gaining popularity as a desirable training module for employees. Team members must be able to understand and communicate their own emotions along with the emotions of their teammates in order to reduce stress within the team.

Van Maanen and Kunda (1989,p.56) speak of work groups "evoking emotions for individuals in situations where feeling rules are more negotiable with a consequent increase in emotional labor". This emotional labor, as discussed earlier, can lead to high levels of stress and burnout. A person can only last for so long hiding his/her true emotions. Research indicates that in becoming team members, individuals often lose their problem-solving proficiency, become emotionally segregated, and blame others for their failure (Wells, 1980). This may be linked to team members' lack of ability to express and regulate emotion. For many years, emotion has been regarded as a "disruptive force" in the work team and its expression has been discouraged. This philosophy has led to many of the findings previously noted and must changed. Intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts are unavoidable in work teams. For this reason, teams must be emotionally prepared to handle emotional issues. Developing skills to raise one's emotional intelligence thereby raising the team's emotional intelligence is the best way to ensure emotional success.

Once emotional intelligence skills are taught, the individuals can incorporate these skills into their teams. Emotional intelligence components can be included in the beginning stages of team development. During the initial formation of teams, members begin to develop rules, expectations, and goals for the group. This is similar to what is termed a social contract in society. Social contracts are "social arrangements in which an individual forms a contract with society for their twin betterment" (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). One subsection of the social contract is the emotional contract that deals with emotion and leads to emotional socialization. In teams, members are socialized to treat others in the group with respect, to handle disagreements in a certain manner, etc. Openness to emotion can be incorporated into the contract allowing emotional information to be recognized and addressed which in turn will promote happiness within the team. Sometimes the emotional contract is insufficient to bring about positive outcomes. For example, team members are supposed to respect each other but what if one member is doing something illegal? Team members are all required by the social contract to contribute but what happens when one member disagrees or sees little value in another's contributions? In the above situations the social contract is not clear on the way in which to respond. It is in these types of situations that emotional intelligence is extremely necessary. The individuals must be able to understand and reason with emotion, and flexibility is needed to forego happiness in the short term for larger goals. Emotional intelligence is required to perceive emotion, recognize and utilize emotion, understand emotional meanings, and manage emotion in order to cope with the situation and deal with other team members appropriately.

There are several roles that team members assume in which emotional intelligence is needed. Group members must assume the role of friend when serving on a team. This entails making connections with others, establishing common ground, balancing interests, and providing help and support. The second role of team members is that of negotiator. This requires the individual to resolve conflicts by generating alternative solutions to problems, monitoring other's responses, and adjusting their actions accordingly. Finally, leadership is often exhibited by members in the team. Team members organize groups via the initiation of activities. Also, the role of leader inspires and motivates other group members and keeps the group focused on the task at hand (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997). Emotional intelligence is a skill needed in all of these roles in order to understand other team members enough to bond with them and ensure team cohesion.

Team Performance and Emotional Intelligence
Various aspects of teams such as task/goal attainment, communication skills, interpersonal processes, cohesion, and conflict management contribute to team performance. Emotional intelligence is central to many of these components and can aid in attaining successful performance. In a study conducted by Dionne (1998), half of the variance in team performance could be explained by team interpersonal processes and individual characteristics such as self-efficacy. Team cohesion was a powerful predictor of team performance over time. Team communication skills also predicted initial team performance. Emotional intelligence has been shown to benefit interpersonal processes and raise self-efficacy. Martinez-Pons (1997-1998) tested the predictive power of emotional intelligence on three areas of personnel functioning:goal orientation, life satisfaction, and depression symptomatology. He found emotional intelligence to be a significant predictor of concern with task mastery, life satisfaction, and depression symptomatology. The higher one's emotional intelligence, the higher one's ability is to carry out adaptive task oriented behaviors. Performance in this area tends to enhance life satisfaction and decrease depression symptomatology which can benefit teams' overall performance.

Studies have linked co-worker relationships to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, absenteeism , and burnout (Leiter, 1988;Leiter & Maslach, 1988). The quality of interaction also affects communication effectiveness, perceptions of equity, and competitive behavior (Vecchio & Logan, 1989; Turban & Jones, 1988). By developing emotional intelligence skills, team members will be able to communicate more effectively due to their ability to recognize and regulate their own and other's emotions. Lastly, emotional intelligence could potentially reduce aggression in the workplace. Satisfaction with coworkers has been found to be negatively related to absenteeism and destructive behavior on the job. Moretti (1986) found that low satisfaction with coworkers along with attitudes toward violence and dishonesty predicted job-related damage and waste. People who become overly aroused are prone to behaving inappropriately in social conflict situations. Eisenberg and Fabes (1992) proposed that two variables determine whether people become overaroused in social situations: their dispositional level of reactivity or intensity of emotional responding (part of temperament) and (2)their ability to regulate emotional reactions/behavior and cope with arousing situations- a main ingredient of emotional intelligence. Emotional and social issues are the root of many of the above problems, and should be addressed in the beginning of team formation as well as throughout the team's lifespan in order to lessen the conflict and interpersonal issues.

Existence of Emotional Intelligence Construct

The question has been raised as to what exactly EI is, and if it is related to other constructs already in existence. One such construct is general intelligence. Some psychologists insist that emotional and general intelligence are interconnected while others disagree. Knowing what a person feels is a mental ability and may stem from general intelligence or be independent of it. The findings in the literature have been mixed with low to moderate correlations between the two (Schutte, 1998). Although many researchers have suggested that emotional intelligence is indeed a type of intelligence, contemporary research and theory offer no conceptual model wherein emotional intelligence would undoubtedly belong (Davies,Stankov,& Roberts, 1998). The theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence, developed by Cattell (1987) and associates offers a potential placement for emotional intelligence. One could speculate that emotional intelligence is a component of crystallized ability in that the appraisal, expression, regulation, and use of emotion develop through social interaction and experience as do other components of crystallized intelligence. Those individuals who do not agree that emotional intelligence is an intelligence component believe it to be more of a personality trait.

The problem with identification of the construct lies in the available measures of emotional intelligence. The current measures in existence are mostly self-report and are not sufficient to demonstrate existence of the construct. Although the above calls for more objective measures to be developed before scientists are convinced of emotional intelligence's existence, industry is already contributing success to the construct. Emotional intelligence is believed to have contributed to the success of engineers' ability to network effectively at Bell Laboratories (Kelley & Caplan, 1993).

Training Teams to be Emotionally Intelligent

Once the team members are trained on emotional intelligent skill building, they may succeed at making team members feel better and communicating in interesting ways, designing projects and combining products with feelings (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997). Most emotion skills can be improved through education and the understanding that all individuals operate from different emotional starting places or "emotional knowledge bases" (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Training can be executed at the forming stage of team creation as well as throughout the team's time together. A measure such as the one located in the appendix can be used the team's current level of emotional intelligence. In teaching members emotional skills, it is important to use such techniques as role-plays, modeling, and encouragement. Martinez-Pons (1998-1999) found that in teaching emotion skills to children, modeling, encouragement, facilitation, and rewarding behavior by others were key determinants of emotional intelligent behaviors being learned and later practiced. It is also critical that team members' emotional styles are acknowledged by the entire team and that the team members also define team values which will then define expected emotional responses. It is also imperative to point out to the training group that individuals from different subcultures approach emotions differently. Certain cultures produce more stoic individuals while others promote extreme openness. This type of diversity must be acknowledged and appreciated in order for the team to be successful. It is important to keep in mind that emotional intelligence training cannot be accomplished in a one day or one week training session. Training in emotion skills takes many months and must be revisited periodically to ensure the learning has been retained and put into practice on the job. Just because emotional skills are taught, one cannot guarantee the development of an emotionally intelligent person or team.

 Conclusion

In conclusion, emotional intelligence is a valuable construct for any organization contemplating or currently practicing the teams approach. Because teams are constructed of individuals who experience and exhibit emotions, emotional intelligence is needed so team members can interact in an appropriate and efficient manner. If team members are trained in emotional intelligence, perhaps they will enhance their communication with one another, increase chances of accomplishing their goals smoothly, increase cohesion and commitment, and decrease interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict. Although scientists have not reached an agreement on the categorization of the construct, it seems to be a valuable concept within the organizational arena. With proper training objectives and measurement, organizations cannot lose in the implementation of the training. Hopefully, in the future emotional intelligence will be respected and revered as a highly critical aspect of team success.

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Measure of Team Emotional Intelligence

Please indicate your agreement with each statement below using the following scale.

_____ 1. We know when to speak about our personal problems to others.

_____ 2. We expect that we will not do well on most things we try. ( R )

_____ 3. Other people find it easy to confide in us.

_____ 4. We find it hard to understand the non-verbal messages of each other. ( R )

_____ 5. We are aware of our emotions as we experience them.

_____ 6. We expect good things to happen.

_____ 7. We like to share our emotions with each other.

_____ 8. When we experience a positive emotion, we know how to sustain it.

_____ 9. We are not aware of the non-verbal messages we send to others. ( R )

_____ 10. We present ourselves in a way that makes a good impression on others.

_____ 11. When we are in a positive mood, solving problems is easy for us.

_____ 12. By looking at their facial expressions, we recognize the emotions others are experiencing.

_____ 13. We do not know why our emotions change. ( R )

_____ 14. We have control over our emotions.

_____ 15. We do not easily recognize our emotions as we experience them. ( R )

_____ 16. We compliment each other when we have done something well.

_____ 17. We are not aware of the non-verbal messages other people send. ( R )

_____ 18. When we are faced with a challenge, we give up because we believe we will fail. ( R )

_____ 19. We know what other people are feeling by looking at them.

_____ 20. We help other people feel better when they are down.

_____ 21. We can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice.

_____ 22. It is difficult for us to understand why people feel the way they do. ( R )

( R ) The item is reversed. All reversed items scores can be calculated by 6-item response number. For example, if the answer for item 3 is 2, then the score for item 3 is (6-2=4) 4. High total scores indicate a high emotional intelligence.

• This measure could also be written at the individual level with team members' scores being aggregated to produce a combined team score.
• This measure is strictly hypothetical and has not been validated to date.